Guide for undergraduate
students
Esta sección tiene como objetivo ofrecer un “ABC” estructurado y práctico de la cirugía laparoscópica, basado en textos clásicos de cirugía general, manuales de sociedades científicas y guías clínicas internacionales.
Guide for undergraduate students
ABCs of Handwashing
ABCs of Handwashing
Guía práctica, científica y actualizada para estudiantes de medicina.
The handwashing es la medida más
importante, efectiva, económica y universal para prevenir
infecciones hospitalarias, transmisión cruzada y brotes
intrahospitalarios.
A pesar de su simplicidad, la adherencia sigue
siendo baja incluso en profesionales de la salud. Por
ello, un estudiante debe dominar el when,,
how,, why and hw long lavar
sus manos.
This document summarizes the
international protocols vigentes y la evidencia
científica más reciente.
1. Why is hand washing so important?
- Reduce between 30–50% nosocomial infections.
- Disminuye transmisión de bacterias multirresistentes (MRSA, VRE, CRE).
- Evita la diseminación de virus respiratorios (influenza, SARS-CoV-2).
- Protege al paciente, al personal de salud y al estudiante.
- It is the foundation of any safe clinical practice.
The WHO considers handwashing as «la intervención de mayor impacto en seguridad del paciente».
2. The WHO's 5 Moments for Handwashing
- Before touching the patient.
- Before performing a clean/aseptic task.
- After exposure to body fluids.
- Aftertouching the patient.
- After touching the patient's environment.
Every student should memorize these 5 moments.
3. Types of Hand Washing
-
Higiene de manos con agua y jabón (lavado
convencional)
- Mechanical removal of dirt, bacteria and viruses.
- Indicada cuando hay suciedad visible, sangre, fluidos, tierra o después de usar el baño.
- Duration: 40–60 seconds.
-
Higiene de manos con alcohol gel (ABHR —
Alcohol-Based Hand Rub)
- Más rápida y efectiva que el lavado tradicional contra la mayoría de bacterias.
- It requires a proper technique.
- Duration: 20–30 seconds. (No funciona si las manos están visiblemente sucias).
-
Surgical scrub: Para procedimientos
invasivos.
- It is done by 2–5 minutes según protocolo institucional.
- It includes hands, forearms, and elbows.
- Puede hacerse con clorhexidina al 2% o solución alcohólica para scrub quirúrgico.
1. Handwashing Technique (with soap and water)
OFFICIAL WHO STEPS (40–60 seconds):
- Wet your hands with water.
- Apply enough soap.
- Rub palm to palm.
- Right palm on left back and vice versa.
- Palm to palm with fingers interlaced.
- Back of fingers against opposite palm.
- Rotación del pulgar derecho con mano izquierda y viceversa.
- Rub fingertips against palm.
- Rinse with running water.
- Dry with a disposable towel.
- Turn off the tap with the towel.
2. Alcohol Gel Technique (20–30 seconds)
- Place sufficient solution (3–5 ml).
- Rub palm to palm.
- Palm with back.
- Between the fingers.
- Backs of fingers.
- Thumbs.
- Fingertips.
- Continue until your hands are completely dry.
3. Common mistakes among students
- Not using enough hand sanitizer.
- Wash for less than 20 seconds.
- Forget thumbs and fingertips.
- Wear jewelry, watches, long nails, or nail polish.
- Do not wash your hands before putting on gloves.
- Relying too much on gloves.
1. Recent evidence (2020–2024)
Contemporary literature demonstrates:
- Alcohol gel is more efective que lavado simple en la reducción de flora transitoria.
- La adherencia aumenta cuando existen dispensadores accesibles.
- Uñas artificiales aumentan 4–10 veces la carga bacteriana.
- Clorhexidina tiene efecto residual superior al jabón convencional.
- El lavado quirúrgico con soluciones alcohólicas reduce tiempo y mejora adherencia.
- La pandemia COVID-19 impulsó el cumplimiento, pero este bajó posteriormente, indicando necesidad de educación continua.
2. Practical recommendations for student
- Learn and practice the WHO method until you master it.
- Do not wear long nails, nail polish, rings, or bracelets.
- Perform hand hygiene before and after cada contacto clínico.
- Carry hand sanitizer in your uniform.
- Give others encouragement when you notice flaws in their technique.
- Remember: A student who knows how to wash their hands saves lives, even without having touched a scalpel.
- World Health Organization. WHO Guidelines on Hand Hygiene in Health Care. Geneva; 2020 update.
- Kampf G. Efficacy of ethanol against viruses in hand disinfection. J Hosp Infect. 2021;108:123–129.
- Lotfinejad N, Peters A, Pittet D. Hand hygiene and COVID-19: lessons learned. J Hosp Infect. 2021;113:40–41.
- Pittet D, Boyce J. Hand hygiene compliance: pandemic insights. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;72:e610–e612.
- Suen LK, et al. Effectiveness of hand hygiene protocols among healthcare students. Nurse Educ Today. 2021;97:104694.
- Szilágyi L, et al. A large-scale assessment of hand hygiene quality. Am J Infect Control. 2020;48:1382–1387.
- Alzyood M, et al. COVID-19 reinforces the importance of hand hygiene. J Clin Nurs. 2020;29(13):2738–2740.
- Cheng VC, Wong SC. Hand hygiene techniques and compliance. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2022;36(1):49–63.
- Santosaningsih D, et al. Barriers to hand hygiene adherence among healthcare workers. Am J Infect Control. 2020;48:144–150.
- Kingston L, et al. Hand hygiene compliance in hospitals: A review. J Infect. 2020;81(1):5–13.
- Yokoi H, et al. Hand hygiene surveillance using AI. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2022;43:781–788.
- Boudjema S, et al. Improving hand hygiene in hospitals post-pandemic. J Hosp Infect. 2022;119:1–7.
- Neves ZCP, et al. Adherence of healthcare students to hand hygiene. Rev Lat Am Enfermagem. 2020;28:e3326.
- Mahida N, et al. Residual antimicrobial activity of chlorhexidine. J Hosp Infect. 2020;104:40–46.
- Rundle CW, et al. Hand hygiene and dermatologic health in medical trainees. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2020;83:867–873.
- Kampf G. Efficacy of chlorhexidine-based scrubs. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2020;9:204.
- Boyce J. Alcohol-based hand rubs in healthcare settings. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:e1308–e1314.
- Ferrari M, et al. Hand hygiene behavior in medical students. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19:3741.
- Padoveze MC, et al. Global advances in hand hygiene research. Am J Infect Control. 2023;51:286–293.
- Lim W, et al. Hand hygiene and multidrug resistance. J Hosp Infect. 2022;120:156–162.
- Trubiano JA, et al. Hand hygiene impact on nosocomial infections. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2021;27:593–599.
- Jeffery-Smith A, et al. Hand hygiene post-COVID: challenges. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22:e89–e97.
- Conzelmann D, et al. Effectiveness of WHO’s 6-step technique. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2021;42:390–396.
- Guzmán-Blanco M, et al. Hand hygiene in Latin America: gaps and priorities. Clin Infect Dis. 2022;75:S368–S378.
- Müller S, et al. UV-based teaching of hand hygiene for students. BMC Med Educ. 2020;20:205.
- Park HY, et al. Handwashing adherence among trainees. J Hosp Infect. 2020;105:321–327.
- Frampton GK, et al. Systematic review of hand hygiene interventions. Health Technol Assess. 2021;25:1–80.
- Wyeth EK, et al. Hand hygiene strategies for medical students. Med Educ. 2021;55:1242–1251.
- Haas JP, et al. Improving compliance using multimodal strategies. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2020;41:104–110.
- Moradi T, et al. Psychology and habits behind hand hygiene adherence. BMC Public Health. 2022;22:1–12.
- Lee MH, et al. Hand hygiene for infection prevention: Updated recommendations. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2023;36:e00019–22.
- Sharma S, et al. Impact of structured hand hygiene education. J Infect Public Health. 2023;16:503–509.
- Patel PK, et al. Hand hygiene and cross-transmission in hospitals. J Hosp Infect. 2021;110:165–171.
How to behave in the operating room?
La sala de operaciones (quirófano) es un entorno altamente controlado donde la patient safety, the sterility, the discipline and the effective communication they are essential.
Un estudiante bien preparado y con buena conducta
puede aportar significativamente al equipo.
1. Fundamental Principles of Conduct in the Operating Room
-
Punctuality and preparation: Arrive
before the surgeon y del procedimiento. Debes
conocer:
- Patient's name and diagnosis.
- Type of surgery.
- Indications.
- Anatomy involved.
- Pasos básicos de la técnica.
- The preparation demonstrates professionalism and respect.
-
Personal presentation: Debes cumplir
estrictamente con:
- Clean surgical scrub.
- Hair completely covered.
- Mask placed correctly.
- No jewelry, watches, or long nails.
- Shoes designed specifically for the operating room.
- It prevents colonization and contamination.
2. Principles of Sterility
-
NO tocar campos estériles:
- Si no estás estéril: mantente siempre a distancia. No pases por detrás del instrumentista. No toques mesa de Mayo, mesa quirúrgica, cables estériles o equipos envueltos.
- Si estás estéril: mantén manos por encima de la cintura. No cruces brazos. No gires de espaldas a la mesa estéril.
-
Identifica zonas estériles y no estériles:
- Zonas estériles: campo quirúrgico, manos y guantes del equipo estéril, delantal estéril parte frontal del torso, mesas quirúrgicas.
- Zonas NO estériles: hombros, espalda, codos, parte baja del delantal, suelo, equipos no preparados.
3. Communication and teamwork
- Habla cuando sea necesario, no cuando sea distractor: En quirófano el ruido afecta: concentración, seguridad del paciente, flujo del procedimiento. Permanece atento, responde cuando se te pida.
- Anuncia tus movimientos: Si te acercas a una zona estéril o te mueves cerca del cirujano: «Voy detrás de usted, doctor», «Paso a su derecha». Evita sobresaltos o contaminación accidental.
1. Role of the student in the operating room
-
Before surgery:
- Review patient history.
- View images (US, CT, MRI).
- Knowing surgical steps.
- Prepare the room if the team tells you to.
- Formulate relevant questions before del inicio.
-
During surgery: Your main role is
observe, learn and help without getting in the way.
- Puedes: sostener retractores si te lo indican, aspirar con suavidad, cortar suturas bajo supervisión, pasar instrumentos si estás estéril.
- Evita: preguntar en momentos críticos, hablar sin necesidad, contaminar campos, tocar al paciente sin permiso.
-
Después de la cirugía:
- Help clean the table.
- Remove sterile clothing correctly.
- Accompany the patient if they ask you to.
- Check wounds in recovery (with permission).
- Preguntar al cirujano dudas una vez terminado el procedimiento.
2. Patient Safety — Your responsibility too
The student should know:
- Patient identification.
- Correct surgical site.
- «TIME OUT».
- Allergy check.
- Available blood test (if applicable).
- Gauze and instrument count.
- Proper patient positioning.
Never make decisions without permission.
3. Ergonomía y postura quirúrgica
- Columna recta.
- Codos cerca del cuerpo.
- Mangos del instrumental con firmeza suave.
- No recargarse en la mesa.
- Movimientos lentos y controlados.
Una buena postura evita contaminación y accidentes.
1. Common mistakes you should avoid
- Contaminate the sterile field by passing nearby.
- Playing instruments without permission.
- To position oneself between the surgeon and the monitor.
- Do not anticipate the team's movements.
- Ask questions at critical moments.
- Using your cell phone or getting distracted.
- Bringing prohibited items into the operating room.
- Not reporting if something becomes contaminated.
2. If you make a mistake… say so immediately
For example: «Doctor, creo que contaminé mi guante.»
The team rather immediate honesty que
comprometer al paciente.
3. How to make a good impression as a student
- Be punctual.
- Be respectful.
- Observe more than you speak.
- Take notes afterwards.
- Question at the end.
- Learn the names of the instrumentalists.
- Maintain a humble and professional attitude.
- Show genuine interest.
- Offer help: «¿Puedo acercar esa mesa?» «¿Desea que sostenga esto?»
- A helpful student is always welcome.
Todas seleccionadas para formación quirúrgica moderna.
- World Health Organization. WHO Surgical Safety Checklist Implementation Guide. WHO; 2020.
- Association of periOperative Registered Nurses (AORN). Guidelines for Perioperative Practice. 2020–2024 editions.
- American College of Surgeons. Statements on Principles of Surgical Ethics. ACS; 2021.
- Scott DJ, et al. Fundamentals of Surgical Skills Training. Surg Clin North Am. 2020;100(1):1–18.
- Greenberg CC, et al. Communication in the Operating Room. J Am Coll Surg. 2021;232(4):556–565.
- Lingard L, et al. Team communication in surgery: implications for patient safety. BJS. 2020.
- Arora S, et al. Human factors in surgery. Ann Surg. 2021;274(2):e115–e123.
- ElBardissi AW, et al. Safety culture and teamwork in surgery. J Am Coll Surg. 2020.
- Gawande A. The Checklist Manifesto—Surgical Applications Revisited. NEJM 2020.
- Gardner AK et al. Near Misses and Adverse Events in Surgical Training. Ann Surg. 2022.
- Hull L, et al. Non-technical skills for surgeons: systematic review. Surgery. 2020.
- Weller J, et al. Operating Room Crisis Management. BJA. 2021.
- Miller SL, et al. Infection Control in the OR: Evidence Update. J Surg Educ. 2023.
- Ortiz R, et al. Sterile Field Contamination in the OR. Am J Infect Control. 2020.
- Varner C, et al. Impact of Distractions in the Operating Room. Patient Saf Surg. 2021.
- Din OM, et al. Learning in the OR: observational strategies. Med Educ. 2020.
- Yule S, et al. Nontechnical skills for surgeons. Ann Surg. 2020.
- Ahmed K, et al. Surgical etiquette and OR behavior. Int J Surg. 2021.
- Bhatt NR, et al. Improving OR Efficiency. Surg Innov. 2022.
- Murji A, et al. Simulation for OR preparedness. Obstet Gynecol Clin. 2021.
- Hayes N, et al. Prevention of retained surgical items. J Surg Res. 2020.
- Healey AN, et al. Team coordination and safety in surgery. Cogn Tech Work. 2020.
- Lilly CM, et al. Patient safety advancements in the OR. Chest. 2022.
- Gupta K, et al. Impact of OR noise on performance. J Surg Educ. 2021.
- West P, et al. Safety competencies for surgical trainees. BJS Open. 2023.
- Ong LT, et al. Operating room professionalism. Surgeon. 2020.
- Sarker SK, et al. Learning curves in surgery. J Surg Educ. 2020.
- Waymack PJ, et al. Ethical behavior in surgery for trainees. AMA J Ethics. 2021.
- Cohee BM, et al. Scrub technique and sterile practice update. Surg Infect. 2022.
- Kohn GP, et al. Surgical respect and team culture. Ann Surg. 2024.
How to present a surgical case?
Presentar un caso quirúrgico es una habilidad fundamental en la formación médica. No se trata solo de relatar datos, sino de organizar la información de manera clara, lógica y clínicamente útil, permitiendo al cirujano entender el problema rápidamente y tomar decisiones seguras.
1. Objective of presenting a surgical case
- Communicate the patient's condition in a brief, precise, and orderly la condición del paciente.
- To facilitate diagnostic reasoning y la toma de decisiones quirúrgicas.
- Demostrar criterio clínico, capacidad de síntesis y conocimiento.
- Presentar información esencial sin divagar ni dejar datos críticos por fuera.
2. Ideal presentation structure
Aquí tienes la estructura universal utilizada por cirujanos alrededor del mundo:
- Identificación del paciente: Edad, sexo, motivo de consulta. Mantenerlo corto. Ejemplo: «Paciente masculino de 45 años que consulta por dolor abdominal de 12 horas de evolución.»
- History of present illness (HPI): El corazón de la presentación. Incluye: Aparecimiento, Localización, Irradiación, Carácter del dolor, Intensidad, Alivio (Nemotécnico ALICIA), Associations (fiebre, vómitos, ictericia, diarrea, hematemesis, etc.), Evolución temporal, Factores que lo empeoran, Tratamientos previos. Evitar detalles irrelevantes. No relatar minuto a minuto.
- Relevant background: Seleccionar SOLO lo que afecta la decisión quirúrgica: cirugías previas, alergias, enfermedades crónicas, medicamentos (especial: anticoagulantes), hábitos importantes (alcohol, tabaco).
- Physical examination: Report the essentials: Initial vital signs (FC, FR, TA, Temp, SatO₂), Abdominal findings (localización del dolor, signos positivos, ruidos intestinales, distensión, masas palpables, hernias, ictericia). No leer el examen físico completo. Destacar solo lo trascendental.
- Key laboratories: Solo los relevantes: hematología (WBC, Neu, Lyn, Hb, Ht, PLT), PCR o demás reactantes de fase aguda, función renal, amilasa/lipasa, función hepática, lactato, electrolitos.
- Imaging studies: Resultados claros, no interpretaciones vagas: US abdominal, TAC contrastado, radiografía, MRCP si aplica. For example: «TAC muestra apendicitis aguda con fecalito y cambios inflamatorios pericecales.»
- Diagnostic impression: It must be clear and to the point. For example: «Impresiona abdomen agudo inflamatorio secundario a apendicitis aguda no complicada.»
- Surgical plan or procedures: Cirugía inmediata, manejo de líquidos, analgesia, antibióticos, CPRE, observación. The plan should be brief and action-oriented.
3. The golden rules for a good presentation
- Speak loudly, clearly, and without reading.
- Be briefbut include the essentials.
- Do not interpret studies, just report.
- Show clinical judgment.
- Don't ramble, to avoid unnecessary history.
- Be respectful and professional.
- Practice fluency, not memorize.
- Always the same order → esto genera seguridad y un método para entender patologías, y no olvidar con el pase de visitas al paciente.
- In emergencies → aún más breve y directo: «Paciente inestable, TAC con perforación; requiere cirugía inmediata.»
- Accept corrections without justifying it.
1. Common mistakes you should avoid
- Speaking too fast or too slow.
- Show indifference.
- Exaggerating unimportant details.
- Decir «todo está normal» sin especificar.
- Forgetting vital signs.
- Not mentioning key studies.
- Presenting hypotheses without evidence.
- Not bringing up-to-date data from the lab.
- Not knowing the real reason for the interconsultation.
- Decir «creo» demasiado — se debe sonar seguro.
- Invent data (a very serious and unethical error).
2. Practical advice from the surgeon for students
- The surgeon wants data, not literature.
- In the emergency department, the presentation should last less than 1 minute.
- Do not describe studies you have not personally seen.
- Si no sabes un dato, dilo: «No está disponible pero ya está solicitado».
- Learn to differentiate between clinical data and opinion.
- Familiarízate con TAC y US: te dará ventaja sobre otros estudiantes.
- Mantén siempre una libreta con: fechas, laboratorios, diagnósticos, signos vitales.
A student who presents well is immediately noticeable.
3. Example of a perfect presentation (model)
«Paciente femenino de 32 años que consulta por dolor en
epigastrio de 24 horas, que migra a fosa ilíaca derecha,
tipo punzante, progresivo, acompañado de náuseas y
febrícula.
Antecedentes: ninguno relevante. Signos
vitales estables.
Al examen: dolor localizado en FID
con defensa, sin ictericia.
Laboratorios: leucocitos
15 mil, PCR elevada.
TAC: apéndice aumentado de
calibre con fecalito.
Impresión: Apendicitis aguda no
complicada.
Plan: Apendicectomía laparoscópica +
antibiótico prequirúrgico.»
- Jain M, et al. Essential presentation skills for medical trainees. Med Educ. 2021;55(3):312–320.
- Kelly C, et al. Improving oral case presentations in medical education. Clin Teach. 2022;19(2):147–153.
- Graffam B. Effective case presentation: principles and practice. J Surg Educ. 2020;77(4):876–884.
- Wu BJ, et al. Communication skills for surgical trainees: an updated review. Am J Surg. 2021;221(6):1146–1153.
- Patel P, et al. Structured surgical presentations improve diagnostic accuracy among trainees. Ann Surg. 2023;277(5):e1000–e1007.
- Green M, et al. Best practices for case presentations in clinical settings. Acad Med. 2020;95(8):1215–1223.
- Craig C, et al. The one-minute preceptor model: teaching clinical reasoning effectively. Med Teach. 2021;43(6):687–693.
- ISCP Surgical Curriculum. Case presentation standards. Royal College of Surgeons. 2022.
- Lundgren E, et al. Teaching concise presentations in emergency surgery. World J Surg. 2021;45:2941–2948.
- Amgad M, et al. How to present cases in surgery: a systematic review. J Surg Educ. 2020;77(1):35–45.
How to interpret lab results and CT scans in surgery?
The correct interpretation of laboratories and computed axial tomography (CAT scan) es fundamental para el diagnóstico temprano, toma de decisiones y priorización en urgencias quirúrgicas. Un estudiante que domina esta habilidad aporta seguridad, rapidez y valor al equipo quirúrgico.
1. Interpretación de laboratorios en Cirugía
A continuación, los análisis más relevantes en cirugías de urgencia y electivas, con rangos interpretativos y correlación clínica.
-
Complete blood count (CBC).
- Leucocitos (WBC): >12,000: infección, inflamación (apendicitis, colecistitis, peritonitis). <4,000: sepsis grave, inmunosupresión. >18,000: sospecha de complicación o perforación.
- Neutrófilos y desviación izquierda: Neutrofilia >75% → infección bacteriana. Bandas >10% → sepsis, perforación, necrosis.
- Hemoglobina / Hematocrito: Bajo: sangrado activo, anemia crónica. Alto: deshidratación.
- Plaquetas: Baja (<100mil): riesgo de sangrado, sepsis. Alta (>450mil): inflamación crónica, estados reactivos.
-
Proteína C Reactiva (PCR) y Procalcitonina:
- PCR: <10 mg/L → usualmente no infeccioso. 150 mg/L → perforación, necrosis o infección severa.
- Procalcitonina: <0.5 ng/mL → infección no severa. 2 ng/mL → sepsis bacteriana. 10 ng/mL → shock séptico.
-
Electrolitos, función renal y gasometría:
- Creatinina: Elevada: deshidratación, falla renal, sepsis.
- Lactato: 2 mmol/L: hipoperfusión. 4 mmol/L: shock séptico o isquemia mesentérica.
- Sodio y Potasio: HipoK: íleo, debilidad muscular, riesgo de arritmias. HiperK: insuficiencia renal, trauma masivo.
- Gasometría arterial: Acidosis metabólica → sepsis, isquemia. Alcalosis metabólica → vómitos prolongados (obstrucción alta).
-
Pruebas hepáticas y pancreáticas:
- Bilirrubina: Directa elevada → obstrucción de vía biliar. Indirecta elevada → hemólisis o daño hepático temprano.
- Fosfatasa alcalina (FA) y GGT: Elevadas → colestasis, coledocolitiasis.
- Transaminasas (AST/ALT): Elevadas → hepatitis, isquemia, toxicidad. AST >> ALT → daño por alcohol.
- Lipasa / Amilasa: 3× por encima del límite → pancreatitis aguda.
-
Pruebas de coagulación:
- TP/INR y TTP prolongados → enfermedad hepática, sepsis, uso de anticoagulantes.
- INR >1.5 preoperatorio → corregir antes de cirugía si es posible.
2. Surgical interpretation of the CT scan
The Contrast multidetector CT (CT C/A/P) es el principal estudio en emergencias quirúrgicas.
- TAC en Apendicitis: Hallazgos sugestivos: diámetro apendicular >6 mm, infiltración grasa periapendicular, apendicolito, líquido libre, aire extraluminal → perforación.
- TAC en Diverticulitis: Engrosamiento de pared sigmoidea, grasa pericólica inflamada, abscesos → Hinchey II, aire libre → Hinchey III–IV.
- TAC en Obstrucción Intestinal: Dilatación >3 cm (delgado) o >6 cm (colon), nivel aire–líquido, punto de transición, asa cerrada («closed loop»), engrosamiento de pared → isquemia, realce disminuido → necrosis.
- TAC en Pancreatitis: Edema pancreático, colecciones peripancreáticas, necrosis (>30% gravedad mayor), gas en necrosis → infección.
- TAC en Colecistitis aguda: Engrosamiento vesicular >3 mm, líquido pericolecístico, estriación grasa, «Murphy ecográfico positivo», gas → colecistitis enfisematosa (quirúrgica urgente).
- TAC en Perforación de víscera: Aire libre subdiafragmático, aire retroperitoneal, líquido o colección contaminada, engrosamiento de bucle adyacente.
- TAC en Isquemia Mesentérica: Engrosamiento parietal, realce disminuido, gas en pared (neumatosis), gas portal, trombos visibles.
- TAC en Trauma Abdominal: Laceraciones hepáticas o esplénicas, hemoperitoneo, neumoperitoneo, hematomas mesentéricos, leve vs severo según AAST.
1. How to present the interpretation in clinical practice
Students must report in a clear format:
- Laboratorios: «Leucocitos 15,200 con neutrofilia del 85%, PCR 180 mg/L → sugiere infección moderada–severa.» / «Lactato 3.8 mmol/L → posible hipoperfusión.»
- TAC: Describir órgano por órgano, identificar signos clave, correlacionar con clínica, finalizar con impresión diagnóstica.
2. Common mistakes a student should avoid
- Relying solely on the laboratory without seeing the patient.
- Decir «TAC normal» sin revisar a detalle.
- Do not correlate pain with findings.
- Failing to differentiate between inflammation and perforation.
- Do not identify free air or free liquid.
- Sartelli M, et al. WSES Guidelines for the management of acute abdomen. World J Emerg Surg. 2020;15:38.
- Di Saverio S, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of acute appendicitis. WSES 2020 guidelines. World J Emerg Surg. 2020;15:27.
- Pisanu A, et al. CT findings and severity assessment of diverticulitis. Eur J Radiol. 2021;139:109718.
- Rondenet C, et al. Imaging of bowel obstruction. Radiographics. 2020;40:2151–2170.
- Tenner S, et al. Management of acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2020;115:322–339.
- Yokoe M, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018: Acute cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci. 2018;25:41–54.
- Karaağaoğlu E, et al. CT in perforated peptic ulcer. Radiol Med. 2021;126:910–918.
- Menke J. CT for detection of free air. Radiology. 2020;296:345–354.
- Acosta S. Mesenteric ischemia: update 2021. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2021;27:101–107.
- Bala M, et al. Acute mesenteric ischemia guidelines. Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2020;46:453–476.
- Stassen NA, et al. EAST Guidelines for trauma imaging. J Trauma. 2020;89:123–138.
- Brody JM, et al. CT recognition of bowel ischemia. Insights Imaging. 2021;12:90.
- De Cecco CN, et al. Multidetector CT in pancreatic emergencies. Radiol Clin N Am. 2020;58:223–239.
- Frager DH. Bowels obstruction imaging review. Radiology. 2022;302:1–16.
- Smith A, et al. Lab markers in surgical sepsis. Surg Infect. 2020;21:1–9.
- Singer M, et al. Sepsis definitions and lactate interpretation. JAMA. 2020;324:775–788.
- van Randen A, et al. Acute abdominal pain: diagnostic algorithm. BMJ. 2020;370:m3036.
- Beal EW, et al. CT grading of liver and spleen trauma. J Trauma. 2021;90:1–12.
- Biondo S, et al. Infections in abdominal surgery. Br J Surg. 2021;108:238–249.
- Puylaert JB, et al. Imaging of appendicitis. Radiol Clin N Am. 2022;60:55–67.
- Maconi G, et al. Imaging of peritonitis. Dig Liver Dis. 2020;52:772–780.
- Linder JD, et al. Acute abdomen interpretation. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2021;37:525–533.
- Coffin A, et al. CT of gastrointestinal emergencies. Radiographics. 2020;40:2151–2170.
- Champion S, et al. Laboratory markers in abdominal emergencies. Surg Clin N Am. 2020;100:441–453.
- Murphy KP, et al. Imaging pitfalls in emergency radiology. Radiol Clin N Am. 2022;60:89–103.
- Wootton-Gorges SL. Pediatric acute abdomen imaging. Radiographics. 2020;40:1211–1231.
- Shogan BD, et al. Surgical infections markers. Ann Surg. 2022;276:e295–e301.
- Schellekens JFP, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of CRP and WBC. Br J Surg. 2020;107:e34–e43.
- Mallick IH, et al. Gas patterns on CT in emergencies. Clin Radiol. 2021;76:578.e1–578.e8.
- Elsayes KM, et al. Interpretation of liver imaging in trauma. Radiol Clin N Am. 2021;59:45–63.
- Lee JY, et al. Radiology for acute abdominal pain. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2024;9:90–102.
How to interpret clinical signs and surgical scales?
Interpretar signos clínicos y aplicar escalas quirúrgicas validadas es una habilidad esencial para cualquier estudiante que aspira a cirugía. Permiten:
- Recognize seriously ill patients quickly.
- Prioritize interventions.
- Deciding whether a patient needs immediate surgery.
- Clearly communicate the severity to the surgical team.
- Reducing diagnostic errors in emergency departments.
The following is presented resumen completo, moderno y aplicable a la práctica diaria.
1. Signos clínicos críticos en cirugía
-
Signos vitales (interpretación quirúrgica
avanzada)
- Tachycardia: Primer signo de alarma quirúrgica. Causas: hemorragia oculta, sepsis, dolor intenso, ansiedad, deshidratación, perforación de víscera hueca. En cirugía NEVER underestimate a heart rate >100.
- Tachypnea: El signo más precoz de deterioro. Asociado a: acidosis metabólica, sepsis, shock hemorrágico, dolor abdominal agudo, TEP.
- Hypotension: Indicador tardío de shock. Causas: shock séptico abdominal, peritonitis fecaloidea, hemorragia digestiva masiva, trauma abdominal.
- Fever: Clave en pacientes abdominales. Pensar en: apendicitis complicada, diverticulitis, colecistitis, abscesos, colangitis, peritonitis, fasceítis necrotizante.
- Dolor abdominal — Interpretación anatómica: Epigastrio: pancreatitis, úlcera perforada. FID: apendicitis. HD: colecistitis, colangitis. Flanco: cólico renal, retroperitoneal. Generalizado: peritonitis.
-
Classic surgical signs
- Blumberg (positive rebound): Dolor al retirar la mano → irritación peritoneal. Sugiere: perforación, peritonitis, apendicitis avanzada.
- Murphy: Dolor e interrupción de inspiración → colecistitis aguda.
- Rovsing: Dolor en FID al palpar FII → apendicitis.
- Psoas: Dolor con extensión de cadera → apendicitis retrocecal o absceso.
- Grey-Turner / Cullen: Equimosis en flanco y periumbilical → pancreatitis hemorrágica.
- Signos de shock: Piel fría, retraso del llenado capilar, extremidades moteadas, confusión.
2. Essential surgical scales
A continuación, las escalas más relevantes que todo estudiante debe manejar.
- qSOFA (Quick SOFA) — Sepsis grave: Criterios: FR ≥ 22, PAS ≤ 100 mmHg, alteración del estado mental. ≥2 puntos = alto riesgo de mortalidad → alerta quirúrgica.
- SOFA (Sequential Organ Failure Assessment): Evalúa función de pulmones, coagulación, hígado, cardiovascular, SNC, riñones. Útil en pacientes sépticos postoperatorios o con peritonitis grave.
- APACHE II — Surgical ICU: Predice mortalidad. Incluye: edad, estado fisiológico, temperatura, FC, FR, PA, pH, Na, K, creatinina, hematocrito, leucocitos, Glasgow.
- Alvarado Score — Appendicitis: Componentes: migración del dolor, anorexia, náuseas/vómitos, dolor CID, rebote, fiebre, leucocitosis, desviación izquierda. Interpretación: ≥7: probable apendicitis → considerar cirugía.
- AIR Score (Apendicitis Inflammatory Response): Más moderno que Alvarado. Incluye: dolor, rebote, fiebre, leucocitos, neutrófilos y PCR.
- Tokyo Guidelines – Cholecystitis / Cholangitis: Puntúan signos locales de inflamación, leucocitos, fiebre, ictericia, dilatación de vía biliar, función hepática. Clasifican severidad: I, II, III → guía para cirugía o drenaje urgente.
- Glasgow-Imrie — Acute pancreatitis: Evalúa: edad, leucocitos, glucosa, LDH, AST, urea. ≥3 puntos: pancreatitis grave.
- BISAP Score — Pancreatitis (more modern): Incluye: BUN elevado, alteración mental, SIRS, edad >60, derrame pleural. ≥3 puntos → alto riesgo.
- Hinchey — Diverticulitis: I: absceso pericólico. II: absceso pélvico. III: peritonitis purulenta. IV: peritonitis fecaloidea. Guía opciones quirúrgicas: drenaje, laparoscopía, Hartmann.
- Criterios de Estrangulación — Obstrucción intestinal: Alarma absoluta: fiebre, taquicardia, acidosis, leucocitosis, dolor desproporcionado, peritonitis, lactato elevado. Cirugía inmediata.
- LRINEC — Necrotizing fasciitis: Incluye: CRP, leucocitos, hemoglobina, sodio, creatinina, glucosa. ≥8 puntos = alto riesgo.
- Criterios de Traumashock / ATLS: FAST positivo, hipotensión, abdomen distendido, TEP diferenciales. Guía decisiones de laparotomía.
1. How to use scales in practice
- First, recognize the clinical signs (lo que ves y escuchas).
- Apply rapid scales (qSOFA, Alvarado, BISAP).
- Classify the patient (mild, moderate, severe).
- Decide whether a patient needs immediate surgery. o estudios complementarios.
- Communicate effectively with the surgeon usando lenguaje técnico.
- Document everything (hora, signos, cambios, escalas aplicadas).
- They can use a scoring app like this one.
2. Ejemplo práctico
Paciente 38 años, dolor CID, fiebre, taquicardia, rebote
positivo.
Laboratorios: leucocitos 15 000, PCR
elevada.
Interpretation:
- Alvarado: 8
- AIR: high risk
- qSOFA: 0 (not septic yet)
- → Probable appendicitis → surgery.
Another example:
- Paciente adulto mayor con dolor difuso, taquipnea, hipotensión, confusión.
- qSOFA = 3 → Sepsis severa.
- Possible perforation.
- → Urgent laparotomy.
- Singer M, et al. The Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2020.
- Yokoe M, et al. Tokyo Guidelines 2018–2022 for acute cholangitis and cholecystitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci.
- van Randen A, et al. Acute appendicitis: meta-analysis of clinical signs and scores. BMJ. 2021.
- Sartelli M, et al. WSES guidelines for acute abdomen. World J Emerg Surg. 2020.
- Kiewiet JJS, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of diagnostic performance of scoring systems in appendicitis. Br J Surg. 2020.
- Machesky M, et al. BISAP Score Accuracy in Acute Pancreatitis Severity Prediction. Pancreas. 2022.
- McIsaac DI, et al. Severity scoring systems for surgical sepsis. Br J Anaesth. 2020.
- Lobo DN, et al. Perioperative physiological and scoring systems. Surg Clin North Am. 2021.
- Sartelli et al. Acute abdomen in the emergency setting: global updated guidelines. World Journal of Emergency Surgery. 2022.
- Gupta S, et al. Necrotizing soft tissue infections: LRINEC score revisited. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2023.
- Biondo S, et al. Management of diverticulitis. Lancet Gastroenterology. 2021.
- Coccolini F, et al. Perforated Peptic Ulcer guidelines. World J Emerg Surg. 2020.
- Di Saverio S, et al. WSES guidelines for emergency bowel obstruction. World J Emerg Surg. 2021.
- Gandhi SK, et al. Predictors of strangulated bowel. J Gastrointest Surg. 2023.
- Bala M, et al. WSES guidelines for acute mesenteric ischemia. World J Emerg Surg. 2022.
- El Hechi M, et al. Damage Control Surgery: Review. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2021.
- Coccolini F, et al. Peritonitis classification and management. World J Emerg Surg. 2021.
- Lee Y, et al. Interpretation of vital signs in surgical sepsis. Crit Care. 2022.
- Leeuwenburgh MM, et al. AIR Score evaluation. Ann Surg. 2020.
- Moller MH, et al. Early warning scores in surgical patients. Br J Surg. 2021.
- Tran A, et al. Predictive value of qSOFA in acute surgical abdomen. Surgery. 2022.
- Coimbra R, et al. Surgical Infection Society Guidelines. Surg Infect. 2021.
- Regner JL, et al. Clinical signs in perforated viscus. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2023.
- Warlin J, et al. Predictive markers in mesenteric ischemia. Ann Surg. 2021.
- Azzopardi N, et al. A systematic review of peritonitis scores. J Surg Res. 2021.
- Kokoska ER, et al. Pediatric emergent scores. J Pediatr Surg. 2021.
- Fukami Y, et al. Trauma scoring systems update. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2022.
- Lobo DN, et al. Acute care surgery physiology. Surg Clin North Am. 2023.
- Katergiannakis V, et al. Emergency hernia complications. Hernia. 2020.
- De Simone B, et al. SIRS criteria usefulness revisited. World J Surg. 2021.
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citas dr julio

Yes, of course. Not all pain ends in surgery. The consultation is precisely for evaluating what's happening and deciding whether it requires surgery or not, and what the best course of action is in your case.
That's valid. My job is to explain the options, the risks, and the benefits of each. The final decision is always yours, based on clear and honest information.
Surgery isn't always necessary right away. It all depends on your symptoms, the frequency of your pain, and the risk of complications. During your consultation, we'll assess whether it's time for surgery or if it's still safe to observe.
There are symptoms that indicate an emergency, such as intense and persistent pain, fever, continuous vomiting, or rapid worsening. If you have any doubts, it's best to get checked out promptly to avoid unnecessary risks.
It's completely normal. Before any surgery, an anesthetic evaluation is performed to minimize risks and answer all your questions. You're not alone in this process.
Most patients report mild to moderate pain, especially when minimally invasive surgery is used. Furthermore, pain management is an important part of treatment.
It depends on the procedure and your recovery. Many laparoscopic surgeries allow for early discharge, even the same day or the next day.
It varies depending on the surgery and your type of work, but in general, recovery is faster with minimally invasive techniques. During your consultation, I'll give you realistic timelines for your specific case.
Yes. Each surgeon evaluates the case individually. The consultation allows you to confirm the diagnosis, discuss options, and resolve any doubts before making a decision.
It depends on the diagnosis. Some conditions may remain stable, but others can become more complicated. That's why it's important to assess risks and not make decisions based solely on fear or assumptions.
Of course. Understanding your diagnosis and feeling at ease is part of the treatment. There are no wrong questions when it comes to your health.
No. In many cases, medical or conservative management can be attempted. Surgery is indicated when it truly provides a benefit or prevents complications.
Before the procedure, we discuss possible scenarios. Decisions are always made with your safety in mind and to resolve the problem in the best possible way.
Yes, but first a complete evaluation is done. The goal is to optimize your health before surgery to reduce risks.
I will do it myself. I will take the time to explain the diagnosis, the procedure, the risks, and the recovery process to you clearly and without rushing.
No problem. The consultation is to inform and guide you. You can take all the time you need to decide.
Yes. It's normal to have questions afterward. My team and I are here to guide you through the entire process.
This chat can help guide you, but it doesn't replace a medical evaluation. For important decisions, an in-person consultation is always necessary.
Each case deserves an individual evaluation. During the consultation, we will calmly review your situation to define the best strategy.
Surgery is only one part of the process. Evaluation, preparation, follow-up, and recovery are equally important for a successful outcome.
Yes, it can vary depending on the type of surgery and your health condition. In both cases, the anesthesia is chosen with your safety, comfort, and a good recovery in mind.
Yes, in most abdominal surgeries we use general anesthesia so you won't feel any pain or have any memories of the procedure. The anesthesiologist will evaluate you beforehand and explain everything in detail.
In properly evaluated patients, the anesthetic risk is usually low. That's why the pre-procedure assessment is so important, where your medical history is reviewed and everything is optimized before the procedure.
It's a common concern, but extremely rare. Modern anesthesia is continuously monitored to keep you asleep and safe throughout the procedure.
Upon waking, you may feel drowsy, slightly dizzy, or nauseous, but this is usually temporary. The team will monitor these symptoms to ensure your recovery is as comfortable as possible.